Pottery, Yazd’s Ancient Handicraft

Pottery, Yazd’s Ancient Handicraft

Pottery in the ancient Iranian city of Yazd holds a reputation for being the world’s most time-honored handicraft after basket-weaving.
The pottery work and jar-making primarily included painting and polishing the pottery work. The first pottery works were in red color, ISNA reported.
Iran’s traditional pottery-making has more popularity in some regions than in others, namely, Lalejin in Hamedan province, some villages of Khorasan province and Meybod in Yazd province.
Pottery experts use silicium, glass, kaolin and feldspat. After preparing the clay by mixing silicium, glass, kaolin and feldspat together, the clay is formed by means of potter’s wheel. When the clay is shaped, it is left to dry up in front of the sun.
The pottery works has been popular in the Iranian plateau and northern Iraq since 6,000 BC. Some believe that women were the first inventors of pottery work about 10,000 ago.

Naqsh-e Rostam Sepulcher of Ancient Kings

Naqsh-e Rostam Sepulcher of Ancient Kings

Naqsh-e Rostam is a site believed by archeologists to have been a cemetery for Persepolis, where Achaemenid, Parthian and Sassanid royalty were laid to rest.
Located about 3-4 kilometers northwest of Persepolis in Iran’s Fars province, the site contains funerary works belonging to the Elamite (second millennium BC), Achaemenid (550-330 BC) and Sassanid (226-651 C) eras. According to Presstv, the only surviving monument from the pre-Achaemenid period is a bas-relief which was almost completely obliterated when the court scene of Bahram II (276-293 AD) was carved over it.
The remnants of the scene show an attendant standing behind two deities seated on layered thrones resembling coiled snakes.
Hewn out of a cliff high above the ground are four Achaemenid tombs reputed to have belonged to Xerxes, Darius I, Artaxerxes and Darius II.
According to the Greek historian Ctesias, the tomb of Darius I was in a cliff face that could be reached only by means of an apparatus of ropes.
The tombs of the later Artaxerxes above Persepolis were modeled on those at Naqsh-e Rostam. The openings in the massive tombs led to the funerary chambers, where bones were stored after vultures picked them clean. The carvings of Artaxerxes’ tomb are considered unique examples of the art of stone carving which was at its peak during his reign.
The bas-reliefs above the openings are similar to those at Persepolis with the kings standing at the Zoroastrian fire altars supported by figures representing the subject nations below.
Facing the cliff is the cube of Zoroaster, a square tower with reinforced corners that stands on a three-step base. The structure is built of light-colored stone with false windows made of dark stone and the walls are marked with inscriptions cataloguing Sassanid victories. An identical monument, Zendan-e Sulaiman, was built at Pasargadae. The purpose of these towers is not known, but it has been suggested that they were either royal tombs, depositories for objects of dynastic or religious importance, or Achaemenid fire temples although the possibility of the latter has been ruled out as there are no outlets for smoke or gases.
A 400-year period of internal and foreign conflicts between the Achaemenids and Sassanids left no room for innovation. As a result, Sassanid stone carvings are generally replicas of those found in Bishapur and Firouzabad.
The eight Sassanid stone bas-reliefs cut into the cliff beneath the facades of the Achaemenid tombs depict scenes of imperial conquests and royal ceremonies.
The oldest relief carved near the Elamite relief depicts the appointment of Ardeshir I (224-241 AD) by Ahura-Mazda.
Ardeshir’s successor, Shapur I (241-272 AD), was the next to carve his “Victory over the Romans“ on a relief standing near Darius tomb.
The third relief, carved over the Elamite relief, shows Bahram II (276-293 AD) with members of his family and court.
In the fourth century, and perhaps at the beginning of the fifth century, five other bas-reliefs with jousting scenes were carved below the Achaemenid tombs.
The Naqsh-e Rostam structures have been built from white and grey limestone without the use of mortar.
It is believed that Persians were the first to use colors to decorate stone carvings.
A particularly striking feature of Naqsh-e Rostam stone carvings is the use of color; many of the site’s inscriptions and carvings are covered with lapis lazuli.
Evidence shows that the carving of Darius had a lazuline beard and mustache, black hair, red eyes, lips and shoes as well as colorful robes, although the passage of time has eliminated the colors at Naqsh-e Rostam.
Naqsh-e Rostam is a unique and beautiful reminder of Persia’s rich artistic history and awaits the approval of UNESCO for inclusion on its World Heritage list.

Takht-e Soleiman

Takht-e Soleiman

Located in the city of Takab in West Azarbaijan province, Takht-e Soleiman is an important archeological site.
Thirty-eight towers are built around a crater lake, which dates back to 3rd century AD.
According to Ariyamanesh website, among the remains are ruins of a Sassanid palace and fire temple. One of the three most sacred fires of Zoroastrians was maintained in this temple.
Latest excavations at the northern gate of Takht-e Soleiman historical site show that during the reign of the Sassanid dynasty (224-642 AD), Iranians used special labels on goods for promoting their brands.
Archeologists have conducted excavations regularly on this site in northwestern Iran. “These labels served different functions. On one of them, you could see two abstract figures from the Sassanid court, indicating that goods were dedicated to the royal family,“ said Yousef Moradi, head of the excavation team.
The labels are in the form of two seals engraved on earthen vessels and discovered from the top layer of the soil near the northern gate. Archeologists also hope to unravel bureaucratic relations of the era.

Mythical Imagination
Located in a mountainous area of northwestern Iran and 42 kilometers to the north of Takab, Takht-e Soleiman (Throne of Solomon) is one of the most interesting and enigmatic sacred sites. Its setting and land formations must certainly have inspired the mythical imagination of the ancient people living nearby.
Situated in a small valley, at the center of a stony hill, is a small lake of great beauty. Brilliantly clear but dark as night due to its depth, the lake’s waters are fed by a hidden spring far below the surface. Places like this were known in legendary times as portals to the underworld, as abodes of the earth spirits.
Religious Sanctuary
Archeological studies have shown that human settlements existed in the immediate region since at least the 1st millennium BC, with the earliest remains belonging to the Achaemenid culture (330-559 BC).
During this period, the fire temple of Azargoshnasb was first constructed, which became one of the greatest religious sanctuaries of Zoroastrianism. It functioned through three dynasties (Achaemenid, Parthian and Sassanid) for nearly 1,000 years. In the early Sassanid period of the 3rd century AD, the entire plateau was fortified with a massive wall and 38 towers.
In later Sassanid times, particularly during the reigns of Khosrow-Anushirvan (531-579 AD) and Khosrow II (590-628), extensive temple facilities were erected on the northern side of the lake to accommodate the large numbers of pilgrims coming to the shrine from beyond the borders of Persia.
Following the defeat of Khosrow II’s army by the Romans in 624 AD, the temple was destroyed and its importance as a pilgrimage destination declined.
During the Mogul period (1220-1380), a series of small buildings were erected, mostly on the southern and western sides of the lake, and these seem to have been used for administrative and political rather than religious functions.
The site was abandoned in the 17th century, for unknown reasons, and has been partially excavated by German and Iranian archeologists over the past 100 years.

Parthian Dynasty

Parthian Dynasty

By the first half of the 3rd century BC, the Parni, a nomadic Aryan tribe from the steppes of Central Asia, had migrated into the Achaemenid/Seljuk satrapy of Parthia . In 238 BC, a tribal leader of the Parni named Arsaces overthrew the Seljuk satrap of Parthia and began the dynasty of the Arsacid Parthians in the district of Astavene.
According to Iranvisitor website, at around 235 BC, the brother of Arsaces, Tiridates (meaning “great archer“ in the Parthian language) led an army to the south and conquered the rest of Parthia . Seljuk II attempted to check the Parthian advance but he was defeated and Hyrcania also fell.
Seljuk Decline
The young Parthian nation paid tribute to the Seljuk kings until the 2nd century BC when Seljuk power began to fade. The provinces of the Seljuk Empire gradually began to fall to the Parthians and in 139 BC, Mithradates I, who reigned during 138-171 BC, captured Seljuk King Demetrius Nicator, who was held captive for ten years while the Parthians conquered Mesopotamia and Media.
In the west, the Parthians were pitted against the Roman Empire and they proved to be a thorn in their side for over three centuries. Parthian cataphracts (heavily armored cavalry) backed by brigades of mounted archers were well suited to disrupting the tight organization of Roman foot soldiers and defeat them. This had a precedent in the army of 40,000 under Crassus in 53 BC, which gave the Romans much to think about and forced many changes in the Roman war tactics.
Expansion
By 129 BC, Parthian rule extended as far as the banks of the Tigris where they established a winter encampment at Tisfun directly opposite Seljuk, the Hellenisitic capital of Western Asia .
They did not take the city, however, because of its wealth and trade potentials. During the summer, the Parthians would retire from the sun-baked Mesopotamian plain to the ancient Persian capitals of Susa and Ecbatana .
With an empire spreading from Armenia to India , king Mithradates II, who reigned during 123-88 BC, consolidated Parthian power and wealth. He established caravan routes across his united realm, linking trade routes already existing to the east and west of Iran .
Silk Road trade spanning the Asian continent from China to the Mediterranean served to enrich the empire.
Downfall
However, it was the feudal organization of the Parthian Empire, once the source of its great strength that eventually led to its downfall. The regional nobilities that had grown both in wealth and military power through concessions granted to them for their constant campaigning against the Romans and other enemies gradually became less inclined to obey central authority.
Their refusal to pay levies and, more importantly, to raise armies for the king led to disorganization and fragmentation. Arguments over succession to the throne sowed further disarray.
The Romans were quick to take advantage of these internal weaknesses. Since they were also familiar with Parthian tactics, the Romans managed to capture Tisfun in 116 and 198 AD. And that marked the beginning of the Parthian fall.

Kish Island in Different Eras

Kish Island in Different Eras

Covering an area of 89.7 square kilometers, Kish is an elliptical island situated to southwest of Bandar Abbas in the Persian Gulf . According to the Persian daily Hamshahri, the only relatively reliable source of information regarding its history is Greek Admiral Niarchos who in 325 BC was ordered by Alexander the Great to travel to the coasts of the Sea of Oman and Persian Gulf on an exploration expedition. Niarchos’s writings comply with the characteristics of Kish Island , which he said had many flower gardens and palm groves.
During the rule of Achaemenids, Kish was the main center for collecting pearls and merchants of the world visited the island quite frequently.
Prosperity
Kish flourished after 4th century AH. When Siraf Port was ruined in a quake, Turan Shah, with the assistance of local rulers, established a port on the island and assisted its development. Consequently, Kish became a major commercial hub in the Persian Gulf .
During the Atabakan era, Kish was of such paramount importance that the governor of Persian Gulf resided on this island. Based on the writings of tourists and historians, the island’s income consisted of fees charged on commercial ships, which was quite substantial.
During the eras of Ghaznavids, Seljuks, Khwarazmshahian and Mongols, Kish Island was at the peak of its prosperity and was the commercial hub of the Persian Gulf . Historians such as Qazvini, Fazlollah bin Abdullah Shirazi, Ibn Batutah and Hamdellah Mostofi have all spoken of the grandeur and beauty of the island. Historians state that during the rule of Mongols over Iran , the name of Kish was mentioned along with reputable places such as Baghdad , Shiraz , Bahrain and India . Furthermore, remnants of the city of Harireh in the northern section of the island hint at the past grandeur of the island. The strategic importance of Iran as the bridge connecting the East with the West and the special status of Kish in the Persian Gulf have perpetually been the center of attention of other countries.
Economic developments of Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries brought the Europeans, including the Portuguese, toward the markets of the East. In the early 16th century, the Portuguese sent their warships and commercial ships to the Indian Ocean to gain control over the trade markets of India , Saudi Arabia and Iran , and also expand their colonial territories.

Isolation and Stagnation
In 1506, the Portuguese Admiral Afonso de Albuquerque traveled to the Sea of Oman and Persian Gulf with 14 warships. After burning down Muscat and a few other ports, he anchored in the port of Hormuz and called on the emir of Hormuz and Kish to surrender to the king of Portugal and obey him. This request was not accepted and the Portuguese conquered Hormuz and Gamberon. This marked the beginning of the era of isolation and stagnation of Kish . This is because the Portuguese believed that the strategic importance of Hormuz was more than that of islands located inside the Persian Gulf, including Kish , since Hormuz could help ward off any invasion more effectively than other islands.
The Portuguese were present in Kish until the era of Safavids. Unfortunately, they did not leave behind anything but misery and ruins.
In the third decade of the 17th century, the island of Hormuz and other Iranian islands and ports in the Persian Gulf were returned to Iran, not only the importance of Kish but also that of Hormuz had enfeebled. Instead the newly-established Bandar (Port of) Abbas came to the limelight, given its significant geographical and economic position. In this era, Kish was almost in shambles and isolated and at times was a shelter of Persian Gulf pirates.
During the reign of Nassereddin Shah, the Qajar monarch, Kish was relegated to Qavam Al-Molk Shirazi, one of the prominent and influential tribal leaders of Fars province, as fief. Qavam Al-Molk, in turn, sold the island to Mohammad Reza Khan Sotoot Al-Mamalek Bastaki, the governor of Lengeh, at a price of 250,000 rials. During the rule of former Pahlavi regime, Kish was bought and sold several times.
In 1961, Manouchehr Eqbal, one of the dignitaries of the Pahlavi regime, bought the island from the heirs of Sotoot Al-Mamalek for 9 million rials.
In 1970, expert delegations from Iran and the US visited the island. In view of its suitable geographical and strategic position, the island was considered an international tourism-trade center.
For attracting tourists, Kish Development Organization was established in 1972. The organization started the project of modeling Kish tourism zone as Hawaii islands and the southern strips of the Mediterranean Sea . Huge sums were spent for this undertaking. Before the 1979 Islamic Revolution, the organization completed the first phase of the project and parts of phase two. After the victory of the Islamic Revolution, the organization’s projects stopped.

Revival of Prosperity
In 1980, the Council of Revolution started a new era of trade activities and improvement of the deprived areas of southern Iran by using customs tariffs of Kish Island . However, the problems of the post-Islamic Revolution era hindered this task.
In 1990, the Cabinet declared Kish as a free trade zone and once again launched commercial activities on this beautiful island. Finally, upon the establishment of Kish Free Trade Zone Organization in 1993, a new chapter of development and prosperity opened on the island. This has brought in its wake both investors and tourists to the island.

Bisotoun A Witness to History

Bisotoun
A Witness to History

A short distance from the city of Kermanshah stands a mountain which bears traces of ancient Persia. The collection of huge rock reliefs, inscriptions and the gigantic statue of Hercules is witness to ancient Persian history, civilization and glory.
According to Ariyamanesh website, Bisotoun Mountain is located 25 kilometers to the northeast of Kermanshah and hosts ten ancient trade routes linking the Persian high plateau to Mesopotamia and features remains from the prehistoric times to the Median, Achaemenid, Sassanid, and Ilkhanid dynasties.
On the rocks of the famous Bisotoun Mountain, about 50 meters above the ground, are reliefs and inscriptions ascribed to Darius, the Achaemenid king, which still remain intact.
Written on Stone
The Achaemenid king had issued an order after a series of clashes and wars that the details of his conquests and administration be engraved on the rocks.
The Bisotoun inscriptions are in three languages of the time, namely Persian, Elamite and Babylonian.
Carleton Coon, who carried out excavations in a cave in the area in 1949, discovered evidence of a highly developed industry dating back to the Middle Paleolithic era, which indicates that human settlement in Bisotoun goes back to long before the Achaemenids took power in Ancient Persia.
The Bisotoun sculptures are some of the most important historical evidence, which were created in 480 BC during the reign of Darius.
The first historical mention of Bisotoun’s inscription is by the Greek Ctesias of Cnidus, who noted its existence some time around 400 BC and mentioned that a well and a garden beneath the inscription were dedicated by Queen Semiramis of Babylon to Zeus (the Greek analogue of Ahura Mazda).
Statue of Hercules
The statue of Hercules in Bisotoun is among the rare Greek relics belonging to the rule of the Alexander of Macedonia’s successors. The statue was discovered in 1957 during construction operations for the new Hamedan-Kermanshah Road.
A tablet and some carvings could be seen behind the statue. The tablet, which is in Old Greek, contains seven lines and measures 33 by 43 centimeters.
As per the tablet, the statue belongs to the Parthian dynasty (248 BC - 224 AD) when Mehrdad I ruled in Iran.
Achaemenid inscriptions and reliefs carved on the Bisotoun Mountain attract the attention of tourists to the exquisite art used in carving these historical relics.
Altogether, 1,200 lines in the inscriptions tell the story of the battles Darius waged against the governors trying to dismantle the Empire founded by Cyrus the Great. The crucial battle took place on this site.
A bas-relief portrays the king’s victory, showing him with his main enemy at his feet and nine rebel governors in chains. It is hardly visible without the use of binoculars.
Darius is shown high up on the side of the cliff over the village of Bisotoun. There is a staircase leading to a platform under the tablet from which a shallow recess containing an inscription in Greek and the mid-second century BC sculpture of Hercules on the back of a lion.
The attractive features of Darius are evident from his full-length relief while Ahura Mazda, the symbolic celestial figure, can be seen hovering above his head.
In this relief, Darius has stretched his right hand toward this deity and placed his left foot upon the rebel Gaumata (pretender) lying prostrate. Two persons are standing behind Darius, while nine governors from different nations are seen before him with their hands tied behind their backs and a cord around their necks.

Legend
A legend states that Bisotoun had been created by Farhad, a lover of Khosrow’s wife, Shirin. Farhad, who was exiled for his transgression, was asked to carve the mountain to find water and if he succeeds, he would be given permission to marry Shirin. After many years and removal of half the mountain, he finds water, but was falsely informed by Khosrow Parviz that Shirin had died. He goes mad and throws himself from the cliff. Due to this legend, Bisotoun has come to symbolize love and faith in Persian literature.
Bisotoun was recently registered on UNESCO’s List of World Heritage Sites in a decision taken by UNESCO’s World Heritage Committee and announced on July 13, 2006.
The sculptures, inscriptions and tablets of Bisotoun are of considerable historical significance, which attract thousands of Iranian as well as foreign visitors throughout the year.